Belonging Creative Writing Essay

Frame the story with similar characters/ setting/ symbol /comment at beginning and ending Use a limited time frame = sense of urgency (24 hours, one morning, a season, a term, an interview) exploding a moment – 15 minutes Use a single context or setting Explore no more than 2 main ideas re belonging Focus on moments and feelings Have a ‘twist’ at the end Show don’t tell (‘She smiles’ = belonging, without further comment() Use flash backs and flash forwards ie non-linear stories Objects as symbols (eg red hair, ragged appearance show exclusion) Challenge assumptions about belonging (a character responds to exclusion by engaging with situation) Challenge or play with stereotypes (lack of education does not mean lack of intelligence or ability) Use a comment by omniscient author (to reinforce or cast doubt on a character’s actions or attitudes) Multiple voices & perspectives, / points of view-Switch between characters w. opposing pov. Do not start every sentence with â€Å"I† if using 1st person narrative Distinctive voice – to maintain consistent language or idiom of  the character is essential Use sophisticated language – some 3 and 4 syllable words AND PLEASE: no ‘dying’ stories, designed to elicit sympathy! DO reflect and practise – Read short stories for ideas -PLAN, PLAN – your beginning and ending – FRAME IT LANGUAGE: For description of events, characters, places, give details and use: Sensual imagery -size, shape, texture Smell, touch, sound & vivid, sophisticated expression Avoid -Bland, overworked, clichà ©d vocabulary Mixing tenses in verbs (either present or past tense) s CREATIVE WRITING ON THE CONCEPT OF BELONGING Selecting a topic on belonging that deals imaginatively with identity, experience, relationships, acceptance, understanding links with people, community or the larger world writing imaginatively means writing in a way that is different to the everyday familiar images. but, avoid being philosophical. Show your ideas on isolation through events, actions of characters and dialogue. write about a topic with which you are most familiar but finding unusual and fresh ways to think about it and describe it. The first paragraph must engage the reader. Show – don’t tell. For example, it is better to describe a scene, something like, â€Å"I trembled with an expectation that the dark shadow in the moonlit window was inside the room† rather than to say â€Å"I was afraid†. Write metaphorically. For example, â€Å"A tiny green seed was planted in my mind and since green is the colour of fertility and growth, the idea sprouted and grew taller than the beanstalk.† Use Language features to create visual, auditory, tactile and olfactory imagery. Similes- The wind tore at her face, like an angry tiger. Strong verbs – tore, crashed, gurgled Metaphors – A tiny green seed was planted in my mind. adverbs and adjectives – briskly, gruffly Point of view – a perspective from which the story is told. A character in the story or, for example, a pair of ballet shoes use of first person â€Å"I† for the audience to become engaged use of third person, â€Å"he, she, they† for sustained story telling. Tense the present tense provides a strong sense of immediacy past tense works well for most stories a story set in the future is more difficult to achieve a story told in flashback, starting from the ending, looking back on choices that brought the character to this point – sometimes works well if it is brought back into the present with skill. Expression – use clear English with correct spelling and fluency of expression. Use the ‘s and contractions (I’m, don’t) correctly. Use a Thesaurus to broaden your range of vocabulary: Choose words that accurately describe a situation. For example a disaster – crash, panic, caution, explosion, destruction, crisis. Structure include dialogue – conversations between characters to develop the character, personality, motivation or attitude – only essential details should be included. punctuate direct speech correctly. For example, â€Å"The river moved,† she said, â€Å"I don’t recognise this place.† Always write on a new line when quoting direct speech. introduction – engaging and interesting, for example, begin with a single word or short phrase correct paragraphing – use a new paragraph for each new idea, change of place, time or focus. link paragraphs to each other vary sentence lengths to help change tone and add interest. conclusion should provide a resolution for all the problems or issues in the story which may be surprising or unpredictable Avoid boring introductions. clichà ©s – expressions that are familiar, repeated over and over and therefore lacking in freshness. For example â€Å"run of the mill†, â€Å"true blue Aussie†. unnecessary dialogue. being philosophical. Show your ideas on isolation through the events, actions of characters and dialog. CHECKLIST-Quality writing – aim to have your story stand out Opening – original / innovative Ideas – engaging, interesting, different, unusual Language techniques – similes, metaphors, adverbs, adjectives Structure – paragraphing, varied sentence lengths, range of punctuation Clear link / response to the question Conclusion – surprising / unpredictable PRACTICE WRITING TASK Using an event as a trigger for ensuing action, conversation, conflict. Task: Write a ONE PAGE narrative involving three people where character is revealed. The theme is belonging. The cup smashed. (This is your opening sentence.) 1. Continue this as a narrative. Imagine 3 characters: describe them. (Include, detail, adjectives, strong verbs and similes.) 2. Imagine a setting. Describe it. 3. Write the ensuing conversation. Complete the story showing subsequent events and choices made by the characters. (1,2 and 3 may be done in any order. ) 4. Provide a resolution of some sort, whether satisfactory or not for each character, perhaps unexpected. Do NOT use words to denote emotion or attitude such as angry, rude, annoying, bored. Instead – through their actions and words only, have the characters reveal their personalities, attitudes and values. Note the way these traits are revealed in the lines below (after the trigger event): Trigger event: A faint noise began rumbling high up in his bony throat beneath the pure white hairs of his old man’s beard. †¦ Nurse Truman squatted down beside the old man. Mrs McDonald glared at her like a kookaburra confronted with a black snake in its nest. Sister Carr folded her arms. Here, we see that one character is sympathetic, one angry and one does not wish to be involved. Yet, this is only implied or shown through body language and use of strong verbs, not stated outright.

Genre analysis in poetry †the pragmatic approach Essay

Introduction Poetry has been a special genre and it is one of the many genres that remain consistent (structural means) even after being exploited for years. Looking back at the British poems in the late 80s, the stanzas and lines have not changed much, at least not the structure of it. Even until today, these shapes remained the same, although altered in position such as the use of indentation or tabulation in each line, alternatively. Besides, poetry has become a medium of communication in various situations and often used by the higher classes (they are more educated) to express their feelings or messages. Nonetheless, it takes a little intelligence to understand these corpuses of descriptive lexis because today, the poems are more straightforward due to the change of generations. The genre analysis on poetry or literary text covers a wide scope – from musical traditions to prayers (olden days) and from letters to advertisements. Therefore, it is safe to say that poems were widely used for communicative purpose, whether in general or specific aspect. Steinberg (2007) also stated that poems, like art, has been used as a communicative medium because they are easier to follow and learn by heart, after which they can be  combined with other genres such as songs and dances. Besides that, the exploitation of genres is also evident as we study on the pragmatics and structural cognition of a poem. Pragmatics is the study on the meaning behind the context; later in this research, the study will reveal the relationship between them as to how it affects the understanding of the cohort today. Furthermore, the paper will also discuss on the structural cognition of a poem – why the lines and stanzas are arrange in a certain manner , as well as does it bring any meaning or purpose towards the readers. 1 Literature Review  According to Taheri and Ahi (2013), it is a must for people to deal with all sorts of communication in our daily lives that uses some of the methods of poetry, including editorials, sermons, political speeches, advertisements and magazine articles. No doubt, our further research shows that poems are used to advertise a product in a creative way since the usual â€Å"paragraph-ish† sentences were too common in newspapers or printed mediums. The study of pragmatics are not clearly stated by author Dijk (1977), however he mentioned that a literary text may be pragmatically â€Å"vague† or ambiguous so to say, in which  both a literary or ritual function and a â€Å"practical† function may be assigned. Therefore, we conducted our research on a slight aspect of pragmatics to study on the relations with current generation and if it means anything to the message the poets are trying to tell. Our research questions are therefore: 1. How are â€Å"literary actions† and their context related to structures of literary text? 2. In which respect are these actions, context and textual manifestations similar to and/or different from those in other types of communication, both verbal and non- verbal? In short, our aim and purpose of this study is to find (if) there is anything dissimilar to the poetic genre and to understand the literary pragmatics better as well as to discover the rhetorical function of poetry respectively. 2 Methodology The research is qualitative overall. Eight poems in total are collected – four taken from two books and another four from websites. These collections are taken randomly just because we would like to study on the effectiveness of arbitrary decisions, but it will not be discussed in this research paper as it does not contribute to the main objective of our study, at  all. Following is the list of our materials: 1. An abstract from Sohrab and Rustum – Matthew Arnold (1853) 2. An abstract from Lines by Matthew Arnold (1951) 3. An abstract from A Battalion-Commander Complains to His Secretary by Ha Jin (1989) 4. An abstract from My Lost Youth by Henry Wadsworth (1855) 5. http://www. scribd. com/doc/67525005/Love-Letter-1#scribd 6. http://www. poets. org/poetsorg/poem/nothing-gold-can-stay 7. http://www. croftonacademy. org. uk/year%208%20Charlotte%20Dymond %20ballad. pdf 8. http://www. azlyrics. com/lyrics/nickiminaj/superbass. html Then, we compare and contrast between poems of different genre – lyric poem, traditional and modern poem, love letters and advertisement. As for the advertisement genre, it would be discussed separately as the effect of poems on the current generation later in the final wrap-up of our research. Nevertheless, the classifications of poems are as follow: 1. Lyric poem: (2), (4), (6) and (8) 2. Traditional and modern poem: (1), (3) and (7) 3. Love letters: (5) Data Analysis In this section, we will include the poems or abstracts used in the comparison stage. This section will also include the elements that touch on the context and textual manifestations of the literary actions. 3 Figure 1 Lyric poems – rhymes: (8) and (2) Elements involved: Rhymes, lines, couple-rhymes Figure 2 Lyric poems – adverbs and conjunctions: (4) and (6) Elements involved: adverbs, coordinating, conjunctions, pronoun 4 Figure 3 Story poem – traditional: (1) Elements involved: context, illustration, approach, italics, emphasis Figure 4 Story poem – modern: (3) Elements involved: emotion, direct, simple 5 Figure 5 Story poem – modern: (7) Elements involved: adjective, direct, simple 6 Results and Discussion. The use of â€Å"system† and â€Å"up† as well as â€Å"deal†, â€Å"bill†, â€Å"ship† and â€Å"lip† in Figure 1 proves that the structure of poem is still maintained in the 20th century. One of the main elements of a poem is the rhymes – always come in pair but could be in a structure of alternate lines. For example, line 1 and line 2 of â€Å"Super Bass† (the repetition of â€Å"system† and â€Å"up†) and the alternation of â€Å"-od† and â€Å"-out† in line 1 and line 3 of â€Å"Lines†. As for Figure 2, there are repetition of adverbs â€Å"there† and coordinating conjunctions â€Å"so† and â€Å"and† in lyric poems. Another noticeable element would be the pronoun â€Å"her† and â€Å"she†. In short, they are more descriptive in nature. By looking at Figure 3, we found that traditional poems used to have italics for emphasis purpose. For instance, â€Å"Like some old miser, Rustum hoards his fame, And shuns to peril it with younger men. † – in this sentence, we know that Rustum is a proud man. The previous context (Gudurz’s reply) tells us that when they are being challenged, Rustum was hiding away. Hence, Gudurz was warning Rustum about what the others might say, that he rather keep his pride (miser: a stingy person/reluctant to spend) by trying to avoid (shun) the  danger (peril) with his troop because losing a battle means losing one’s pride in the older days. Thus, we can conclude that traditional poem is more objective due to the â€Å"flowerish† choice of words. Additionally, the poems are written through illustration approach – the italics allow readers to interpret the events of the context in any way they want – without knowing the importance of pride, one can also take Rustum’s action as being considerate and defensive as his plan to escape might save him and his team’s lives. 7 Contrary to the traditional poem, modern poem are more subjective. Meaning, it involves emotions and hence, more direct in terms of the language used. If we look closely to the lexis in each paragraph, there is nothing unique or interpretable about the words; they are simple and are â€Å"blasted† towards the readers. The emphasis on â€Å"blasted† is meant by the impact focus directly towards a reader’s emotion. This can be found in Figure 4: â€Å"It was no use†, â€Å"Damn it†, â€Å"begging me for help†, â€Å"If I got killed that way†, and â€Å"he got his head knocked off while fooling with a mortar in the barracks†, as well as in Figure 5: â€Å"And never  came home again†, â€Å"Never saw the razor†, â€Å"But they found her in the flood†, and â€Å"beaming with her blood†; there is simply no room to imagine the otherwise situation like what we found in Figure 3. Story poems, regardless of type, are free from the poetic rules in line – rhymes. However, they still follow the standard structure of stanza, which is in block. Moreover, each poem has their unique subjects or objects or nouns that catches the readers’ attention: â€Å"martyr†, â€Å"blood†, â€Å"April rain†, â€Å"Lady Day†, â€Å"battalion†, â€Å"killed†, â€Å"take heed† and â€Å"nature’s first green is gold†. Some subjects, though, are enhanced with adjectives to describe them, such as those found in Figure 5. This helps the present generation to understand the whole context of a poem in the fastest way possible, whilst not feeling bored or even to say, give up on poetry. 8 Conclusion With such exploitation on poems throughout the century, many new genres came about, noticeably in the advertising genre as shown in Figure 6. As we view these poems in the contemporary period, we can see the effect of poems on the advertising industry – the changed in written creativity. Following that, the poems also hit right to the point, in terms of human needs: â€Å"the objects are closer than they appear† and â€Å"pay less† and â€Å"experience success†. It may seem as though the poems are confusing at times, such as the disconnection of â€Å"Got milk? Go get the feeling†, which allows reader to interpret it freely. On the other hand, this type of poems does not follow coherent rules. According to Lieb (2009), â€Å"Flick my Bic† means to start a fire because during the 1970s, Bic made the famous disposable lighter with their slogan â€Å"Flick my Bic†, and was well received by the society. Thus, the term â€Å"Flick my Bic† is often used to replace words like â€Å"help me out†, â€Å"light up my cig’† or even in sexual context, referring to the clit when performing oral sex. Figure 6 Advertising poem 9 Following that, long loss tradition of love letter writing is revived by a famous poet, Louise Bennett, shown in Figure 7. Love letter poem uses comparison or representation between human, food, or environment. These ranges of elements are usually the favourites of the writer. Apart from being much more flexible and not tied to grammatical rules, it is sometimes cultural based. The poet is an African, so the words used are spoken based, and seemly hard to understand at one point of a time. Words like â€Å"gizada†, â€Å"pen-nib† and â€Å"yeye! † are only known to their culture, perhaps. Figure 7 Love letter poem Nevertheless, other types of poem include a certain way of starting. Some was created to aid amateurs in poetry like the â€Å"Roses are†¦Ã¢â‚¬  poem, shown in Figure 8, 9 and 10 below. 10 Figure 8 Amateur aid poem Figure 9 Amateur aid poem Figure 10 Amateur aid poem 11 References Dijk, T. A. (1977). The pragmatics of literary communication. Amsterdam: University of Amsterdam. Lieb, L. (2009). What do people mean when they say ‘wanna flick my Bic? ‘. Retrieved March 29, 2015, from ChaCha: http://www. chacha. com/question/what-do-people-mean- when-they-say-‘wanna-flick-my-bic%3F’ Steinberg, Sh. (2007). An Introduction to Communication Studies. Cape Town, South Africa: Juta, 120. Taheri, M. , & Ahi, M. (2013). LITERARY COMMUNICATION AND ITS ROLE IN POETICS. In (3rd ed. , Vol. 3, pp. 221-232). Hamadan: International Journal of Language Learning and Applied Linguistics World (IJLLALW). 12 Table of Contents Introduction†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ †¦ †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 1 Literature Review†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 2 Methodology†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ †¦ †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ . 3 Data Analysis†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 4 Results and Discussion†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. †¦ †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 7 Conclusion†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 9 References†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ †¦ †¦. 12 13 GEN RE ANALYSIS IN POETRY – THE STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS An Analysis on Literary Text By D. Chan, E. Elleanae, S. Smith & I. Al-Khaldi

Modus Operandi Essay

Modus Operandi is a term used in a criminal investigation to describe a way in which a defender goes about committing a crime. Usually it defines a pattern of activities driven by the offenders, thought and behavior processes, before, during, and after the crime. It is also used in criminal profiling, where it can assist with obtaining clues regarding an offender’s psychology. It consists of examining the actions used by the offender to execute the crime, prevent its detection and/or facilitate escape. (Vronsky, 2004)A criminal’s MO pertains to facts gathered from a crime scene, giving investigators insight into how, when and where the crime was committed. For example, a criminal may use a particular weapon or focus on certain type of people, time of day, or a particular neighborhood. All which support his modus operandi. The signature is the way in which a criminal leaves his mark on the crime scene. This can include, posing or branding his victim in a certain way or carrying out his crime in a manic obsession such as torture of disfigurement, using props and/or securing souvenirs such as clothing, to relive the crime. An offender’s signature alerts profilers to the emotional and psychological aspects of the offender that are the driving forces of an offender’s crime.(Keppel,1997) Signature behaviors suggest clues regarding a criminal’s past, personality, emotions, mental state and intelligence. Criminal psychological profiling is an investigative tool utilized by experts to examine details of a crime, in the attempt to categorize, understand and predict the behavior of certain type of offenders based on behavioral clues they provide. Criminal psychological profiling is also referred to as â€Å"criminal profiling†, â€Å"criminal profiling† and â€Å"behavioral profiling.†Criminal profiling is a behavioral composite of the unknown, put together after analyzing the crime scene and other important information pertaining to the crime. This can include the autopsy report, autopsy and crime scene photos, as well as initial police reports. Also included in criminal profiling, is a detailed analysis of the victim. (Douglas, et al, 1992) Additional data, such as geographical areas beyond the immediate crime scene, the method of which the offender traveled to and from the crime scene and the relevant aspects of the residential location of the victim are also examined. In addition, the relationship between the perpetrator and the victim is also analyzed. Criminal profiling is not necessarily useful in every case, yet in some cases, it can assist with narrowing down the search for an offender when used in repeated crimes committed by a specific offender, such as serial rape or murder. Knowledge gained from profiling, can aide in the interrogation process of an offender and can assist with identifying and protecting potential victims before the perpetrator gains the opportunity to offend again. Although there are many opponents against utilizing the criminal profiling techniques, the goal of criminal profiling is to deduce enough behavioral, personality and physical characteristics about an offender so that she or he may be apprehended. (Berg, 2008) Several FBI special agents have written books noting their positive experiences with utilizing their skills of a criminal profiler.FBI profiler, Robert Ressler, assisted with popularizing the field of profiling. His book, Whoever Fights Monsters, has often been credited with creating much of the public’s fascination with psychological profiling. Berg, B. L. (2008). Criminal Investigation. New York: Mc Graw – Hill. Douglas, J. E.., Burgess, A.W., Burgess A.G., & Ressler, R.K.(1992).Crime classification manual: A standard system for investigating and classifying violent crimes. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Keppel, R.D., & Birnes, W. J(1997). Signature killers: Interpreting the calling cards of the serial murderer. New York: Pocket Books. Vronsky, R. (2004). Serial Killer. New York: Berkley Publishing Group I felt that way.See when uve had a life filled with trauma,ur normal response is to â€Å"panic†,get excited,go into overdrive,defensive,loud talkn etc.Side note.I realize that alot our ppl in the hood,respond that way all the time.Not understanding their responses, are trauma responses.Normal responses based on what theyve been through.Of course they dont no that, bcuz they are always in survival,†Fight or flight† mode.Two traumatized ppl wont make it bcuz, they trigger each other.Unless, they r content with the â€Å"normalcy of it all.You no,ppl who claw@each other daily?Tear each other down,then make up as if nothin is wrong.That’s trauma to one’s spirit.Ater a while, some is gonna have to pay for that(she/he jst snapped one day).No, it was building.I need a cool calm and collected, who understands that its not personal.That my barr none attitude,is the outcome. Its the normal response baby,from being on my own at 16,DV for many yrs,dispised and unloved by my first teacher.Yea, it has to go somewhere.lol But,I work on me everyday.Truth b told, I wouldnt want to b anybody else.I felt that way.See when uve had a life filled with trauma,ur normal response is to â€Å"panic†,get excited,go into overdrive,defensive,loud talkn etc.Side note.I realize that alot our ppl in the hood,respond that way all the time.Not understanding their responses, are trauma responses.Normal responses based on what theyve been through.Of course they dont no that, bcuz they are always in survival,†Fight or flight† mode. Two traumatized ppl wont make it bcuz, they trigger each other.Unless, they r content with the â€Å"normalcy of it all.You no,ppl who claw@each other daily?Tear each other down,then make up as if nothin is wrong.That’s trauma to one’s spirit.Ater a while, some is gonna have to pay for that(she/he jst snapped one day).No, it was building.I need a cool calm and collected, who understands that its not personal.That my barr none attitude,is the outcome. Its the normal response baby,from being on my own at 16,DV for many yrs,dispised and unloved by my first teacher.Yea, it has to go somewhere.lol But,I work on me everyday.Truth b told, I wouldnt want to b anybody else.

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Diglossia and the variation of the colloquial arabic

Diglossia and the variation of the colloquial arabic 1.0 Introduction: In many speech communities where speakers use two or more varieties of the same language in different situations, a phenomenon called diglossia exists. The purpose of this paper is to discuss diglossia in the Arab community, as this is one of the communities that have been classified by Ferguson (1959) to be examples of diglossic language situations. It was my original intention to focus specifically on the Libyan context. However, a paucity of information on the Libyan context has meant that the major focus of the assignment is on Arabic in general. However, in the final section of the paper, I do make brief reference to Libya. After defining diglossia, the characteristic features of diglossia as determined by Ferguson will be discussed too. I will then, provide a description of diglossia in Arabic, followed by the origins of Arabic diglossia. A description of classical/modern standard and colloquial Arabic will be also provided, together with their usage in different domains. Finally, I will put forward some arguments and studies on Arabic diglossia, which have been introduced by linguists, as well as Arabic dialects and how variation of Arabic dialects is sometimes considered to be problematic. 2.0 Diglossia defined The term diglossia was introduced from French ‘diglossie by Ferguson (1959), who is credited with first using this term in an article he wrote in 1959. According to him, diglossia refers to ‘one particular kind of standardization where two varieties of a language exist side by side throughout the community, with each having a definite role to play (Ferguson, 1959:232). In other words, when two languages or language varieties exist side by side in a community and each one is used for different purposes, diglossia exists. Usually, according to Richards et al (1992:108), one is a more standard variety called the high variety or (H- variety) which is used for example in educational institutions (lectures at universities), religious services (prayers, sermons in mosques and churches). The other one is called the low variety or (L- variety), which is used in family context, social interactions and shopping. In addition, Ferguson has identified four languages which he thinks fit into his definition of diglossia. Those languages are Greek, Arabic, Haitian Creole and Swiss German. In all four areas, there seems to be a similar functional distribution between two varieties of the same language, which are called in Fergusons terminology high variety (H) and low variety (L). 3.0 The characteristic features of Diglossia Ferguson (1959: 235) suggests that the different uses of H and L varieties can be described with reference to the following criteria: Specialized Functions One of the most important features of diglossia is the ‘specialization of function for High and Low forms'(Ferguson, 1959:235). In other words, each form has special domains to be used in. For example, the High form is used in religious sermons, letter writing, parliamentary speech, university lectures, news broadcasts, newspaper editorials and poetry, whereas the Low form is used in family conversation, folk literature, and soap opera. Slight overlapping between the two forms occurs, i.e. sometimes the two forms might be used in one domain by switching from H to L and vice versa. H and L are used for different purposes, and native speakers would find it odd if anyone used H in an L domain, or L in an H domain. Acquisition Low (L) is the mother tongue of the speaker in the concerned defining languages (Arabic, Greek Haitian Creole and Swiss German), which have been determined by Ferguson. All speakers learn it as a first language at home as they are more comfortable in the L form than the H. The H form is normally learnt by formal instruction in schools. Standardization In all the defining languages, H is highly standardised and may have a long tradition of grammatical study associated with it. In other words, grammars, dictionaries are a large literature which is associated with it. The L form may not be standardised. In Arabic, for example, the L form has no standard grammatical rules as it differs from one Arabic region to another region, and every Arabic community has its own local L form (dialect). Prestige H is always considered to be more highly valued than the L as a result of the fact that the H variety is used in literature, religious texts, public speaking etc. The L variety is less associated with the written word and is often considered to be a corrupt version of H. It may be found in popular advertising, folklore poetry or used in drama, e.g. to describe comic characters. For Arab Muslims, for example, H is considered to be the language of the Koran, and it is widely believed to ‘constitute the words of God and even to be outside the limits of space and time (Ferguson, 1959:238). Grammar, lexicon and phonology The syntactic system of H varieties are generally thought to be more complex than the L in terms of grammatical features such as, tense, gender and number. Complex sentence structures are thought not to be a feature of L in the languages determined by Ferguson. The lexicon of the two varieties, on the other hand, is largely shared but there is a difference on account of the specific domains in which each is used. H and L may share the same phonological system, but even at this level of grammar, the H variety is felt to have more complicated phonetic features. 4.0 Fishmans extension of diglossia In 1967, Fishman revised and expanded Fergusons original definition of diglossia. Fishman believed that diglossia must be distinguished from bilingualism (Fasold, 1984). He suggests that bilingualism refers to an individuals ability to use more than one language variety, whereas diglossia refers to the distribution of more than one language variety to serve different communication tasks in a society. However, Fishman states the view, which he attributes to J. Gumperz that ‘diglossia exists not only in multilingual societies which officially recognize several ‘languages but, also, in societies which are multilingual in the sense that they employ separate dialects, registers or functionally differentiated language varieties of whatever kind (Fishman, 1967:30). Fishman proposes that classic diglossia could be extended to situations where forms of two genetically unrelated languages occupy the H and L domains, such that one of the languages is used for education, law, literary and religion while another is the home language. Moreover, his extension depends on his focus on domain. In a community, for example, where speakers use two languages, they will obviously not use both in all circumstances. They use only one language in certain circumstances, and in others, they use the other one. Fishman cites Paraguay as an example for his claim where there are two languages which are known by almost everybody. In Paraguay, Spanish is used as the high formal language, whereas Guarani is used as the low informal language. Fishmans reference to Paraguay illustrates how far apart linguistically two languages may be and still be in a diaglossic relationship. From the above two conceptions of diglossia, we come to a conclusion that both scholars, Ferguson and Fishman agree that the H variety is used for formal purposes and the L variety is used for less formal, more personal uses. However, they disagree when Ferguson distinguishes diglossia from the relationship between standard and colloquial, whereas Fishman mentions the possibility that more than two language varieties can be reserved for specific functions in a society. In addition, Fergusons view is limited two language varieties, whereas Fishmans view is more than two language varieties can be reserved for specific functions in a society (Fasold, 1984). Having defined the term ‘diglossia and the way the concept has been extended by Fishman; I now turn to a discussion in the Arabic context. 5.0 Digloss ia in Arabic Arabic iÃ'• a mÐ µmbÐ µr of thÐ µ Ð…Ð µmitic languagÐ µ family, which itÃ'•Ð µlf iÃ'• part of thÐ µ widÐ µr AfroaÃ'•iatic phylum including AnciÐ µnt Еgyptian, Coptic, CuÃ'•hitic, BÐ µrbÐ µr, and Chadic. OthÐ µr principal mÐ µmbÐ µrÃ'• of thÐ µ Ð…Ð µmitic family arÐ µ thÐ µ ЕaÃ'•t Ð…Ð µmitic languagÐ µÃ'• of Akkadian and ЕblaitÐ µ (both now long dÐ µad), and thÐ µ WÐ µÃ'•t Ð…Ð µmitic lan ¬guagÐ µÃ'• Aramaic, Ugaritic, thÐ µ CanaanitÐ µ languagÐ µÃ'• (including HÐ µbrÐ µw), anciÐ µnt and modÐ µrn Ð…outh Arabian, and thÐ µ Ð…Ð µmitic languagÐ µÃ'• of Еthiopia (for Ð µxamplÐ µ, GÐ µÃ µz, TigrÐ µ, Tigrinya, and Amharic) (HÐ µtzron 1992: 412-13;2 FabÐ µr 1997: 6; cf. BÐ µÃ µÃ'•ton 1970: 11). 5.1 The Ã'•prÐ µad of Arabic The original homeland of Ã'•pÐ µakÐ µrÃ'• of Arabic is thÐ µ cÐ µntral and northern rÐ µgionÃ'• of thÐ µ Arabian PÐ µninÃ'•ula. ThÐ µ lowÐ µr half of thÐ µ Arabian PÐ µninÃ'•ula waÃ'• inhabitÐ µd by Ã'•pÐ µakÐ µrÃ'• of languagÐ µÃ'• known aÃ'• Еpigraphic Ð…outh Arabian (HÐ µtzron 1992: 412). ThÐ µ Ð µnd of thÐ µ Ã'•ixth cÐ µntury CЕ, howÐ µvÐ µr, Ã'•aw thÐ µ riÃ'•Ð µ of thÐ µ nÐ µw rÐ µligion of IÃ'•lam promotÐ µd by thÐ µ ProphÐ µt Muhammad within thÐ µ Arabian PÐ µninÃ'•ula in what iÃ'• now Ð…audi Arabia. ThÐ µ nÐ µw IÃ'•lamic Ã'•tatÐ µ Ã'•prÐ µad rapidly throughout thÐ µ PÐ µninÃ'•ula, and within 100 yÐ µarÃ'• had Ð µxtÐ µndÐ µd north into thÐ µ LÐ µvant, Ð µaÃ'•t into Iraq and KhuziÃ'•tan, and wÐ µÃ'•t into North Africa. OvÐ µr thÐ µ cÐ µnturiÐ µÃ'•, thÐ µ rÐ µligiouÃ'• frontiÐ µrÃ'• of IÃ'•lam Ã'•trÐ µtchÐ µd into Ð…pain, Africa, India, and IndonÐ µ Ã'•ia, and acroÃ'•Ã'• cÐ µntral AÃ'•ia into Tur ­kÐ µÃ'•tan and China (Gibb 1978: 10). ThÐ µ riÃ'•Ð µ and Ð µxpanÃ'•ion of IÃ'•lam waÃ'• not only a rÐ µligiouÃ'• and hÐ µncÐ µ cultural conquÐ µÃ'•t, but alÃ'•o a linguiÃ'•tic conquÐ µÃ'•t, and within a fÐ µw hundrÐ µd yÐ µarÃ'• Arabic bÐ µcamÐ µ both thÐ µ official and thÐ µ vÐ µrnacular languagÐ µ of all IÃ'•lamicizÐ µd countriÐ µÃ'• in thÐ µ MiddlÐ µ ЕaÃ'•t. IndÐ µÃ µd, duÐ µ to thÐ µ prÐ µvailing tolÐ µrancÐ µ on thÐ µ part of thÐ µ MuÃ'•limÃ'• to ChriÃ'•tianÃ'• and JÐ µwÃ'•, arabicization waÃ'• morÐ µ complÐ µtÐ µ a procÐ µÃ'•Ã'• and progrÐ µÃ'•Ã'•Ð µd at a grÐ µatÐ µr ratÐ µ than iÃ'•lamicization (VÐ µrÃ'•tÐ µÃ µgh 1997: 93). In thÐ µ courÃ'•Ð µ of thÐ µ Ã'•prÐ µad of IÃ'•lam, Arabic found itÃ'•Ð µlf in contact with a Ã'•Ð µriÐ µÃ'• of forÐ µign languagÐ µÃ'• which it haÃ'• tÐ µndÐ µd to Ã'•upplant. In Еgypt during thÐ µ Ð µarly cÐ µnturiÐ µÃ'• of IÃ'•lamic domination, thÐ µ Coptic patriarchÃ'• communicatÐ µd with thÐ µ Arab conquÐ µrÐ µrÃ'• through intÐ µrprÐ µtÐ µrÃ'•. By thÐ µ tÐ µnth cÐ µntury CЕ, thÐ µ Coptic biÃ'•hop Ð…Ð µvÐ µruÃ'• of ЕÃ'•hmunÐ µin complainÐ µd that moÃ'•t CoptÃ'• no longÐ µr undÐ µrÃ'•tood Ð µithÐ µr GrÐ µÃ µk or Coptic, only Arabic. In UppÐ µr Еgypt, Coptic waÃ'• limitÐ µd to a fÐ µw Ã'•mall pockÐ µtÃ'• in thÐ µ countryÃ'•idÐ µ and to thÐ µ clÐ µrgy in monaÃ'•tÐ µriÐ µÃ'• by thÐ µ fourtÐ µÃ µnth cÐ µn ­tury CЕ (VÐ µrÃ'•tÐ µÃ µgh 1997: 95). It iÃ'• gÐ µnÐ µrally bÐ µliÐ µvÐ µd that by thÐ µ Ã'•ixtÐ µÃ µnth cÐ µntury CЕ thÐ µ uÃ'•à  µ of Coptic waÃ'• rÐ µÃ'•trictÐ µd to liturgy in thÐ µ Coptic church (cf. LopriÐ µno 1995: 7). In North Africa, Arabic bÐ µcamÐ µ thÐ µ dominant languagÐ µ of thÐ µ citiÐ µÃ'•, but BÐ µrbÐ µr managÐ µd to rÐ µÃ'•iÃ'•t thÐ µ Ã'•prÐ µad of Arabic in thÐ µ rural intÐ µrior. In Morocco and AlgÐ µria, in particular, BÐ µrbÐ µr haÃ'• rÐ µtainÐ µd itÃ'• vitality alongÃ'•idÐ µ Arabic to thiÃ'• day. LikÐ µwiÃ'•Ð µ in limitÐ µd arÐ µaÃ'• in thÐ µ FÐ µrtilÐ µ CrÐ µÃ'•cÐ µnt, dialÐ µctÃ'• of Ð…yriac havÐ µ pÐ µrÃ'•iÃ'•tÐ µd and havÐ µ influÐ µncÐ µd nÐ µighbouring Arabic dialÐ µctÃ'•. 5.2 ThÐ µ Ð µmÐ µrgÐ µncÐ µ of a Ã'•tandard languagÐ µ and digloÃ'•Ã'•ia ThÐ µ litÐ µrary Arabic languagÐ µ bÐ µgan to attain a Ã'•tandard form through thÐ µ dÐ µvÐ µlop ­mÐ µnt of grammatical normÃ'• in thÐ µ Ð µighth cÐ µntury CЕ (FiÃ'•chÐ µr 1997: 188). ThiÃ'• Ã'•tandard languagÐ µ can bÐ µ tÐ µrmÐ µd Ð…tandard Arabic, thÐ µ tÐ µrmÃ'• ClaÃ'•Ã'•ical Arabic and ModÐ µm Ð…tandard Arabic bÐ µing uÃ'•Ð µd to dÐ µÃ'•cribÐ µ itÃ'• mÐ µdiÐ µval and modÐ µm variantÃ'•, rÐ µÃ'•pÐ µctivÐ µly. ClaÃ'•Ã'•ical Arabic waÃ'• baÃ'•Ð µd primarily on thÐ µ languagÐ µ of thÐ µ wÐ µÃ'•tÐ µrn Hij azi tribÐ µ of QurayÃ'•h, with Ã'•omÐ µ intÐ µrfÐ µrÐ µncÐ µ from prÐ µ- IÃ'•lamic poÐ µtic koinÐ µ and Ð µaÃ'•tÐ µrn dialÐ µctÃ'•. ThÐ µ languagÐ µ waÃ'• codifiÐ µd in thÐ µ Qur an, thÐ µ holy book of IÃ'•lam. Although thÐ µ lÐ µxiÃ'• and Ã'•tyliÃ'•ticÃ'• of ModÐ µm Ð…tandard Arabic arÐ µ rathÐ µr diffÐ µrÐ µnt from thoÃ'•Ð µ of ClaÃ'•Ã'•ical A rabic, thÐ µ morphology and Ã'•yntax havÐ µ rÐ µmainÐ µd baÃ'•i ­cally unchangÐ µd ovÐ µr thÐ µ cÐ µnturiÐ µÃ'• (FiÃ'•chÐ µr 1997: 188). ThÐ µ vÐ µrnacular Arabic dialÐ µctÃ'•, by contraÃ'•t, havÐ µ dÐ µvÐ µlopÐ µd markÐ µdly during thiÃ'• pÐ µriod. LikÐ µ a numbÐ µr of othÐ µr languagÐ µÃ'•, thÐ µrÐ µforÐ µ, Arabic camÐ µ to havÐ µ onÐ µ Ã'•tandard variÐ µty and a largÐ µ numbÐ µr of rÐ µgional and Ã'•ocial dialÐ µctÃ'•. UnlikÐ µ many Ã'•uch languagÐ µÃ'•, howÐ µvÐ µr, no onÐ µ in thÐ µ Arab world iÃ'• brought up Ã'•pÐ µaking Standard Arabic as their mother tongue: an Arab childÃ'• mothÐ µr tonguÐ µ will bÐ µ thÐ µ rÐ µgional or social variety of Arabic of itÃ'• homÐ µ rÐ µgion, whilÐ µ Ð…tandard Arabic, if it iÃ'• maÃ'•tÐ µrÐ µd at all, iÃ'• lÐ µarnt formally at Ã'•chool or at homÐ µ aÃ'• part of thÐ µ childÃ'• Ð µducation. Ð…tandard Arabic iÃ'• confinÐ µd to formal writ tÐ µn and Ã'•pokÐ µn occaÃ'•ionÃ'•, and thÐ µ rÐ µgional/Ã'•ocial variÐ µty of Arabic iÃ'• uÃ'•Ð µd at all othÐ µr timÐ µÃ'•. Ð…tandard Arabic now diffÐ µrÃ'• conÃ'•idÐ µrably from rÐ µgional and Ã'•ocial colloquial variÐ µtiÐ µÃ'• of Arabic in tÐ µrmÃ'• of itÃ'• phonology, morph ­ology, Ã'•yntax, and lÐ µxicon. According to LipinÃ'•ki (1997: 75), Ã'•uch digloÃ'•Ã'•ia in Arabic bÐ µgan to Ð µmÐ µrgÐ µ at thÐ µ latÐ µÃ'•t in thÐ µ Ã'•ixth cÐ µntury CЕ whÐ µn oral poÐ µtÃ'• rÐ µcitÐ µd thÐ µir poÐ µtry in a proto-ClaÃ'•Ã'•ical Arabic baÃ'•Ð µd on archaic dialÐ µctÃ'• which diffÐ µrÐ µd grÐ µatly from thÐ µir own (cf. alÃ'•o VollÐ µrÃ'• 1906; WÐ µhr 1952; DiÐ µm 1973, citÐ µd in FiÃ'•chÐ µr 1997: 188). DialÐ µctÃ'• of Arabic form a roughly continuouÃ'• Ã'•pÐ µctrum of variation, with thÐ µ dialÐ µctÃ'• Ã'•pokÐ µn in thÐ µ Ð µaÃ'•tÐ µrn and wÐ µÃ'•tÐ µrn Ð µxtrÐ µmÐ µÃ'• of thÐ µ Arab-Ã'•pÐ µaking world bÐ µing mutually unintÐ µlligiblÐ µ. On thÐ µ baÃ'•iÃ'• of cÐ µrtain linguiÃ'•tic fÐ µaturÐ µÃ'•, Arabic dialÐ µctÃ'• can bÐ µ dividÐ µd into two major gÐ µographical groupÃ'•: thÐ µ firÃ'•t compriÃ'•Ð µÃ'• dialÐ µctÃ'• Ã'•pokÐ µn Ð µaÃ'•t of a linÐ µ running from Ð…alum in thÐ µ north to roughly thÐ µ Ð…udan-Chad bordÐ µr in thÐ µ Ã'•outh; thÐ µ Ã'•Ð µcond compriÃ'•Ð µÃ'• thÐ µ Maghribi dialÐ µctÃ'• Ã'•po ­kÐ µn to thÐ µ wÐ µÃ'•t of thiÃ'• linÐ µ. ThÐ µ main phonological fÐ µaturÐ µÃ'• which diÃ'•tinguiÃ'•h thÐ µ wÐ µÃ'•tÐ µrn dialÐ µct group from thÐ µ Ð µaÃ'•tÐ µrn includÐ µ thÐ µ typical rÐ µduction of thÐ µ triangu ­lar Ã'•yÃ'•tÐ µm of Ã' •hort vowÐ µlÃ'•, a, i, u, which iÃ'• found in Ð µaÃ'•tÐ µrn dialÐ µctÃ'•, to a two-vowÐ µl Ã'•yÃ'•tÐ µm (FiÃ'•chÐ µr and JaÃ'•trow 1980: 33); and a contraÃ'•t bÐ µtwÐ µÃ µn an iambic word ­Ã'•trÐ µÃ'•Ã'• Ã'•yÃ'•tÐ µm in thÐ µ wÐ µÃ'•tÐ µrn group and a trochaic word-Ã'•trÐ µÃ'•Ã'• Ã'•yÃ'•tÐ µm in thÐ µ Ð µaÃ'•tÐ µrn group. ThuÃ'•, a word Ã'•uch aÃ'• katab hÐ µ wrotÐ µ will bÐ µ typically Ã'•trÐ µÃ'•Ã'•Ð µd aÃ'• katab in wÐ µÃ'•tÐ µrn dialÐ µctÃ'•, but aÃ'• katab in Ð µaÃ'•tÐ µrn dialÐ µctÃ'•. In wÐ µÃ'•tÐ µrn dialÐ µctÃ'•, thÐ µ com ­bination of an iambic Ã'•trÐ µÃ'•Ã'• Ã'•yÃ'•tÐ µm togÐ µthÐ µr with a tÐ µndÐ µncy to dÐ µlÐ µtÐ µ unÃ'•trÐ µÃ'•Ã'•Ð µd vowÐ µlÃ'• lÐ µadÃ'• to word-initial conÃ'•onant cluÃ'•tÐ µrÃ'• which arÐ µ not typically attÐ µÃ'•tÐ µd in Ð µaÃ'•tÐ µrn dialÐ µctÃ'•: in thÐ µ Moroccan Arabic dialÐ µct o f Lmnabha, Ã'•min fat (ЕlmÐ µd ­laoui 1995: 139) iÃ'• thÐ µ cognatÐ µ ofCairÐ µnÐ µ Ã'•imin; and thÐ µ word for outÃ'•idÐ µ iÃ'• rÐ µal ­izÐ µd aÃ'• brra in Lmnabha (ЕlmÐ µdlaoui 1995: 157), but aÃ'• barra in CairÐ µnÐ µ. DialÐ µctÃ'• of a languagÐ µ which haÃ'• Ã'•pÐ µakÐ µrÃ'• aÃ'• Ð µthnically and Ã'•ocially divÐ µrÃ'•Ð µ aÃ'• Arabic, howÐ µvÐ µr, cannot bÐ µ dividÐ µd in purÐ µly gÐ µographic tÐ µrmÃ'•. DialÐ µctÃ'• arÐ µ alÃ'•o commonly diÃ'•tinguiÃ'•hÐ µd along a bÐ µdouin-urban axiÃ'•: bÐ µdouin dialÐ µctÃ'• tÐ µnd to bÐ µ morÐ µ conÃ'•Ð µrvativÐ µ and homogÐ µnouÃ'•, whilÐ µ urban dialÐ µctÃ'• Ã'•how morÐ µ Ð µvolu ­tivÐ µ tÐ µndÐ µnciÐ µÃ'• and uÃ'•ually Ð µxhibit fairly clÐ µar intra-dialÐ µctal variation baÃ'•Ð µd on agÐ µ, gÐ µndÐ µr, Ã'•ocial claÃ'•Ã'•, and rÐ µligion. Typical BÐ µdouin fÐ µaturÐ µÃ'• includÐ µ thÐ µ voicÐ µd rÐ µflÐ µx of ClaÃ'•Ã'•ical Arabic qd], prÐ µÃ'•Ð µrvation of thÐ µ ClaÃ'•Ã'•ical Arabic intÐ µrdÐ µntalÃ'•, and a gÐ µndÐ µr diÃ'•tinction in thÐ µ Ã'•Ð µcond and third pÐ µrÃ'•onÃ'• plural of thÐ µ vÐ µrb, pro ­nounÃ'•, and pr onoun Ã'•uffixÐ µÃ'• (VÐ µrÃ'•tÐ µÃ µgh 1997: 144). DiÃ'•tinctionÃ'• bÐ µtwÐ µÃ µn bÐ µdouin and urban dialÐ µctÃ'• appÐ µar to bÐ µ lÐ µÃ'•Ã'• markÐ µd in thÐ µ ЕaÃ'•t, howÐ µvÐ µr, particularly in thÐ µ PÐ µninÃ'•ula, than thÐ µy arÐ µ in North Africa (FiÃ'•chÐ µr and JaÃ'•trow 1980: 24). Diglossia is a term which is usually applied to the sociolinguistic situation in much of the Arabic speaking world. In those countries, there are two forms of the same language (Arabic), the high and low variety. The high form is called fusha classical or modern standard Arabic which is normally used in formal situations, such as writing, political speeches and university lectures. The low form which is referred to dialects of Arab communities is used in informal situations, such as conversations, shopping and social rituals. The Arabic language represents a continuum. At one end of this continuum is the modern standard Arabic, and at the other lies the low form which represents the various dialects of the Arab communities. These two ends, in fact are only ideal types, i.e. pure standard or pure colloquial, in fact do not exist. In other words, even in the most pure standard text, we may find some colloquial terms and vice versa (Hary, 1996:72). A persons place on this continuum would be somewhere between the two forms. In other words, where a given persons speech sits on this continuum depends on a lot of factors including speaker, conversation topic and setting. For example, how well the two speakers know each other and the formality of the speech as when giving university lectures and sermons. Furthermore, in Arabic communities, classical Arabic fusha is deemed as the language of the Koran and is still the current written form of the language. At the beginning of the Islamic period, only two sources of literary Arabic were available; the Koran and the pre-Islamic poems al-shear al-jaheli. The Koran described itself arabiyyan ‘Arabic when it was revealed. This seems clear from the following verse of the Koran Q 43/2-3 which says; ( wa-l-kitabi: l-mubini: inna ga alnahu quraanan arabiyyan la allakum ta qiluna) ‘By the clear book: we have made it an Arabic recitation in order that you may understand. According to Versteegh ( 2001:53), the Koran and the pre-Islamic poems play a crucial role in the ‘standardization and development of the Arabic language. Colloquial Arabic ammyya or darja as it is called in North Africa, on the other hand, exists as the vernacular varieties of the major Arabic speaking communities. It is very often used, especially in daily spoken form. In some of the Arab contexts, for example, if somebody uses standard Arabic in the street, he might be laughed at since using MSA in such domains seems odd. Cown (1968) believes that ‘Arabs are native speakers of NSA [non-standard Arabic] and not MSA [modern standard Arabic] (Mahmoud, 2000:129). In other words, modern standard Arabic has no native speakers. Moreover, colloquial Arabic is subject to regional variation, not only between different countries, but also within regions in the same country as we shall see in the Libyan context in the same country. 5.2 Origins of Arabic Diglossia A number of theories have been introduced by researchers and scholars to interpret the origins of the Arabic diglossia. These theories might be classified into the following three groups; theories which assume the existence of a Koine, those which recommend an explanation of language drift and those which use the hypothesis of Creolization/Pidginization. 5.2.1 Koine The Koine hypothesis is the prevalent theory in terms of the origins of the Arabic diglossia. Koine is a term ‘derived from Greek denoting a lingua franca that develops out of a mixture of languages or dialects (Bishop, 1998:4). In an article entitled The Arabic Koinz, Ferguson assumed that thecommon source of all the Arabic dialects existing outside the Arabian Peninsula was as a result of a variety spoken in the military camps during the middle of the seventh century at the time of the Islamic expansion, and this variety was different from the language of the Koran. In other words, these dialects are not corrupt form, however, they have had a separate existence from the classical language since they have existed outside the Arabic peninsula (Freeman, 1996: 1-2). Ferguson assumes that the majority of the Arabic modern dialects are derived from a koine which existed side by side with the standard/classical Arabic and was not based on any particular regional area. He built his argument on fourteen features, which he thought differ from standard and colloquial Arabic. According to Ferguson, then, diglossia started as a result of the Koine and considered to be the basis of Modern colloquial Arabic (Bishop,1998:4). 5.2.2 Language drift This theory attributes the difference between modern standard Arabic and colloquial Arabic to language drift, natural Semitic change tendencies (as Arabic is one of the Semitic languages) and basic effects among others. Those who recommend these theories feel that the Koine hypothesis is unnecessary and unjustified by the evidence available. However, both sides, those who advocate these theories and the Koine theory agree that language changes likely occur in towns rather than in the dialects of the Bedouin tribes who live in the Arabian deserts because the Bedouin dialects remained unchanged for several centuries after the arrival of Islam. Secondly, they agree that there was no language center in the Arab world which caused the changes seen as a result of its influence. Finally, both sides agree that the Islamic conquests were behind precipitating the rise of the colloquial Arabic dialects. Blau (1988, cited in Bishop, 1998:5), on the other hand, claims that Fergusons argument in terms of the Koine is unconvincing. He argues that the reverse of his argument was correct, i.e. the Koine itself was resulted from the changes of the Arabic dialects, and not as Ferguson said that the Koine was the origin of the modern Arabic dialects (Kaye, 1998:5). 5.2.3 Pidginization/Creolization Before discussing this theory, I would like to give a brief definition of Pidginization and Creolization. According to Richards et al (1992:277), Pidgin means a ‘language which develops as a contact language when groups of people who speak different languages try to communicate with one another on a regular basis. In other words, when speakers of one language, for example, engage in trade with speakers of another, and neither knows the others language, the language used between them is called Pidgin. Creole on the other hand, arises when a pidgin language becomes the native language of a new generation of children as a result of this contact. Versteegh (1984, cited in Bishop, 1998:5) argues that the two theories mentioned above regarding the development of Arabic diglossia are either a focus on an explanation of the similarities or the differences of the dialects without treating the other side. In his estimation, Versteegh argues that an affective theory should deal with both sides of the Arabic dialects. By this hypothesis, Versteegh dealt with both the similarities and the differences between the modern dialects of Arabic. To prove his hypothesis, he gave an example of mixed marriages between Muslim Arab men and non-Arab women of the conquered peoples during the Islamic conquest. This marriage, he said would likely have led to communication using a pidginized form of Arabic and the children who would be delivered as a result of this marriage would have probably spoken a creolised Arabic. 6.0 Classical/modern standard Arabic and colloquial Arabic Before starting to explain different uses of modern standard and colloquial Arabic, I would like to illustrate the difference between classical and modern standard Arabic. Classical Arabic is considered to be the formal version that was used in the Al-Hijaz region (currently Saudi Arabia) 1500 years ago. The Koran was revealed in classical Arabic, which is the main reason why the Arabic language has preserved its purity throughout centuries and is considered an important part of the Arabic culture. Modern standard Arabic (MSA), on the other hand, is an equivalent to the classical Arabic and nowadays it is used as the official language of the Arab states. Ferguson defined MSA as ‘the Arabs ATTEMPT to speak classical Arabic (Kaye, 1972:46; emphasis in the original). The main difference between modern standard Arabic and classical Arabic lies in the vocabulary, i.e. MSA reflects the needs of contemporary expression, whereas Classical Arabic reflects the needs of older styles. A lot of lexical terms of classical standard Arabic, for instance, have become obsolete these days, and they are substituted by new modern words. For example, in classical standard Arabic kittab was used for the word ‘letter,but in modern Arabic, ressala is used instead and rassol ‘messenger instead of mabooth. However, Modern Standard Arabic is grammatically simpler than classical and includes numerous words unknown to the Quran, such as hasib aali ‘computer and shabaket almalomaat â €˜internet. The two varieties, standard and colloquial Arabic divide among themselves the domains of speaking and writing, formal and informal and sometimes both varieties are used side by side in only one domain. The following discussion will attempt to show where these two varieties can be found in the Arabic community. On Arabic television and radio, the news is always presented in modern standard Arabic. This might be because it is watched and listened to by different native speakers of different Arab regions. On some programmes, for instance, the speakers usually start from a written text in standard Arabic, but in reading it they sometimes let themselves be influenced by the target group. In other words, programmes which are presented for special categories of community, for instance housewives, farmers and fishermen, the structure of the standard Arabic text remains unchanged, but at regular pauses colloquial markers and words are inserted. Particles and words such as bita ‘of illi ‘that is are introduced to give a signal to the audience the intention of the speaker, which is according to Versteegs (2001:195) to ‘create an atmosphere of intimacy and warmth. In other words, speakers tend to use some colloquial particles or words to simplify the discussion and to be more close t o the group concerned. Some of the Arab leaders, for example, use colloquial Arabic when they speak to their peoples, to communicate better with them, as they all understand their colloquial Arabic, whereas they use standard Arabic when they make speeches in other Arab countries since the colloquial Arabic in those countries are different from theirs. All books and newspapers in Arabic states are written in standard Arabic, apart from those little cases where colloquial Arabic is rather used, for instance cartoons in newspapers or dialogues of illiterate characters in some novels are sometimes written in colloquial language. Although most literary works are written in standard, they regulary contain colloquialisms. This is also true in movie scripts such as dialogues and theatre plays, even when they are written in standard, they are often staged in dialect. This is perhaps because written works are only read and seen by literate people, who have studied standard Arabic at school (Versteegs, 2001). Plays, songs, folk poetry and popular proverbs are usually performed and written in colloquial Arabic. Some expressions in Arabic, however, although classical, are used both in classical and colloquial domains. For example: tusbihuuna alaa khayr (I hope you wake up in the morning [only used at night] and everything is fine). baaraka allaahu fiika (may Allah [God] bless you): used formally and informally instead of thank you or thank you so much. The titles tabib and tabiibah refer to medical doctors, but native Arabic speakers rarely use these standard forms in their colloquial speech. Instead, they prefer to use the terms alduktor (referring to an M.D or a PhD) or alhakim, which is equivalent to alduktor (referring only to an M.D.) because they sound more prestigious, especially the former form. Lessons and lectures in schools and universities, on the other hand, are mostly introduced in standard Arabic within Arab states. In other words, introducing lessons and lectures in standard Arabic seems to be compulsory in most of the Arab countries. Tutorial discussions, on the other hand, are introduced in both colloquial and standard Arabic. Colloquial Arabic is the language of family and home and is widely used in Arabic communities because it is the mother tongue of all Arab native speakers. When the child starts learning language from his/her parents, almost all lexical and phonological terms are colloquial Arabic. 7.0 Recent studies on diglossia in Arabic contexts When Ferguson introduced his paper on diglossia in 1959, he concluded with ‘an appeal for further study of [diglossic] phenomenon and related ones (Ferguson, 1959:249). Consequently, linguists and scholars have made various efforts and studies on this phenomenon. In the following, I will examine some of those arguments and how they contrast with Fergusons original study. 7.1 Badawis study of Diglossia In an attempt to show how the linguistic system of modern standard Arabic works, the Egyptian linguist, Badawi (1973) has presented his study on the sociolinguistic situation in Egypt (applies on most of the Arabic contexts), in which he rejects Fergusons description of diglossia which says that H and L varieties are in complementary distribution in the Arab world and other communities (Versteegh, 2001). In contrast with Fergusons model and in attempt to subdivide the continuum between the two extremes of standard Arabic and colloquial, Badawi has determined the following five levels model as follows: 1. fusha at-turrat ‘classical Arabic only used in Quranic recitation 2. fusha al-asr ‘Modern standard Arabic the standard form of the language used in writing and sometimes on formal occasions in speaking 3. ammiyyat al-mutaqqafin ‘colloquial of the intellectuals the formal spoken language of educated people 4. ammiyyat al-mutanawwirin ‘colloquial of the literate the informal spoken language of educated people 5. ammiyyat al-ummiyyin ‘colloquial of the illiterate the language in which the illiterate talk (Versteegh, 2001:191) It is noticed from the above that every level represents a different class of people in different domains. For example, the consonant /ÃŽËœ/as in thalatha ‘three is considered classical Arabic, /t/ as in talata ‘three is considered colloquial, whereas /s/ as in salasa (this level is not used in all Arabic contexts) is used between the two extremes (Hary, 1996:7). To show how the linguistic system of modern Arabic works, Badawi offered a diagram (in the appendix) in which it seems clear that every level is a mixture of all the other levels, i.e. every level contains fush a ‘classical, ammiyya or darja ‘colloquial and dakhiil ‘foreign elements. In other words, even the speech of the illiterate contains elements of the high variety (fusha) or modern standard Arabic ( fusha al- asr), and standard Arabic, on the other hand, contains lexis, phonology and morphology of the colloquial of the illiterate (Freeman, 1996:4). In his study, Badawi proved that there is a continuum between standard and colloquial Arabic, and claimed that there is no duality in the Arab world, but continued levels of language. Then, he looked at the colloquial Arabic not as corrupt or different and independent from the standard Arabic, but as one of these levels suggested in his new model of Arabic language. However, although I agree with Badawis new model of the Arabic language, I think a point has not been taken into his account while studying this phenomenon, i.e. the colloquial level of illiterate (those who do not know standard Arabic at all) has recently been developed as a result of the development of radio and t

Oedipus The King Vs Hamlet Analysis

Oedipus The King Vs Hamlet Analysis What is the different between Oedipus the King and Hamlet. Oedipus the King was written by Sophocles in 430-425 BCE. Oedipus the King is about King Oedipus finding out his true origins and him fulfilling a prophecy. In order to save his Kingdom Oedipus has to find out who murdered the king before him. Looking for the murderer Oedipus begins to learn about his origins and true self. Hamlet on the other hand is about a Hamlet, the prince of Denmark, trying to avenge his fathers death. There are many differences between Sophocles Oedipus the King and Shakespeares Hamlet; however there are also many things alike. In the play Oedipus the King Oedipus was born to a king and a queen. The parents wanted to know the future of the child so they had an oracle tell them a prophecy. The prophecy told them that he will kill his father and marry his mother. To protect themselves the parents sent the baby away to be killed. However, the child is not killed. Instead he is sent to another kingdom to be raised by a different king and queen. The new parents never tell Oedipus that he is not theirs. When Oedipus hears he is to kill his father and marry his mother, he leaves his parents and searches for a new home. While on the road after leaving his home Oedipus runs into a man. Oedipus and the man fight and he killed the man. He then finds a castle and becomes a king. Oedipus married the queen. To save his kingdom Oedipus must find the murderer or the previous king and remove him from the kingdom. While searching for the murderer Oedipus thinks that the man on the road that he killed was actually the previou s king. As he verifies his idea he learns that the king was actually his father and he is married to his mother, Jocasta the queen. When Oedipus goes to confront Jocasta he finds her dead body. He stabs himself in the eyeballs from the pain and grief that he has discovered. He is later banished from the kingdom (Sophocles, 969-1008). In the play Hamlet, Hamlet is the Denmark Prince. In the beginning, Hamlet is confronted by the ghost of his dead father, the previous king of Denmark. The ghost tells him that he was murdered by Hamlets uncle, Claudius, the current king. The ghost then asks him to avenge his death. Hamlet decides to act like he is crazy so he would have a better shot at killing him. While pretending to be crazy Hamlet has the Players act out a play that was similar to the murder of Hamlets father. Claudius stopped the play half way through. After he sent everyone away Claudius started to pray and Hamlet sneaks up on him about to avenge his fathers death. However, he decides not to kill him then because if Hamlet kills Claudius while he is praying then Claudius will go to heaven. He decides to wait until he has not had a chance to confess before he kills him. Hamlet is so against him going to Heaven instead of Hell because Claudius killed Hamlets father before he had a chance to confess to God, so Ha mlet believes he went to hell. Hamlet did not try and kill him again until the end of the play. At the end of the play Hamlet is sword fighting with someone that Claudius has made a plan with to kill Hamlet. The plan was that the guy would use a sharp poisoned sword so is Hamlet got cut he would be poisoned and die. The back-up plan in case Hamlet wins is that Claudius will offer Hamlet poisoned wine in celebration. However his mother drinks it. Hamlet was cut with the sword and after his mother died he stabbed Claudius with the poisoned and makes him drink all the wine. Then Hamlet dies (Shakespeare, (1011-1107). The two plays both have the same theme of self-destruction (StudyWorld). However, the plots were very different. Oedipus the King seemed to go backwards. Oedipuss past was revealed as the play progressed. But with Hamlet the reader seemed to already know everything. Oedipus the King and Hamlet are very different when it comes to time period and setting although they were both set mostly in the castle. Oedipus is set in the time of Greek gods in the ancient city of Thebes. Hamlet, however, was set in the country of Denmark in a time when Catholicism was very strong (Hibbison). The characters reacted to the situations that they faced in ways that reflected the setting. Oedipus would pray to the Greek Gods. Hamlet would pray to the normal God and his religion was reflected in his actions. Throughout the play Hamlet was reluctant to become a murderer. When Ophelia killed herself it was believed to be a sin because taking your own life is a sin in Gods eyes. There were some similarities between the two play. There were also several differences. The plays were both set in different time periods. Also, the plots were very different. Oedipus was trying to save his kingdom while Hamlet was trying to avenge his father by killing the king. Both are such wonderful pieces of literature and will not soon be forgotten.

The Joy Luck Club and The Woman Warrior: Memoirs of a Girlhood Among Ghosts :: The Woman Warrior

The Joy Luck Club and The Woman Warrior: Memoirs of a Girlhood Among Ghosts Amy Tan’s novel, The Joy Luck Club describes the lives of first and second generation Chinese families, particularly mothers and daughters. Surprisingly The Joy Luck Club and, The Woman Warrior: Memoirs of a Girlhood Among Ghosts are very similar. They both talk of mothers and daughters in these books and try to find themselves culturally. Among the barriers that must be overcome are those of language, beliefs and customs. The novel The Joy luck club starts with a story that right away suggests the importance of family and language. It is the tale of a hopeful young woman traveling from China to America to start a new life. She carries with her a swan, which she hopes to present to her American daughter someday. The language barrier is exposed when the woman’s good wishes for her future child are defined by the idea that this daughter will never know the hardships endured by her mother because she will be born in America and will "speak only perfect American English" (Tan 18). Though, things do not turn out exactly as planned for the young woman. Her lovely swan is confiscated by customs officials, and her treasured daughter, now an adult, does indeed speak only English and cannot understand her mother at all. Without a common language, â€Å"the expected loving link between mother and daughter is broken. Communication becomes impossible.† (Kim 37) This story sets the stage for conflict between the Chinese mothers and their American daughters. The issue of the language barrier is a constant theme in both The Joy Luck Club and The Woman Warrior. The English language plays a major role in assimilating the new world. For Tan, there is a conflict between Chinese and English, in her real life and in her story. Tan herself stopped speaking Chinese at age five. Tan’s mother, Daisy, however, speaks "in a combination of English and Mandarin" (Cliff notes 6). Tan was taunted in high school for her mother’s heavy Shanghai accent (Cliff notes 6). Because Daisy never became fluent in English, the language problem only escalated between the two women. (Cliff notes 6) Tan expresses this stress in her novel with the character Jing-mei. Jing-mei admits that she has trouble understanding her mother’s meaning. "See daughters who grow impatient when their mothers talk in Chinese, who think they are stupid when t hey explain things in fractured English" (Tan 40).

Epilepsy And The Blood Type Diet :: Biology Essays Research Papers

Epilepsy And The Blood Type Diet Are people with certain blood types more susceptible to chronic seizures than others? Can a simple diet reverse this medical condition? And why didn't anybody think of this before? There's a myriad of fad diets out these days: Atkins, the fruit juice diet, Russian Air Force diet, and the Zone to name a few. However, the most recent craze is, "The Blood Type Diet", based on the book, Eat Right 4 Your Type by Doctor Peter D'Adamo. The diet focuses on an individual's genetic makeup (blood type) in determining which foods are best digested. D'Adamo heads up the Institute for Human Individuality (IfHi), which "seeks to foster research in the expanding area of human nutrigenomics. The science of nutrigenomics (naturopathic medicine) seeks to provide a molecular understanding for how common dietary chemicals affect health by altering the expression or structure of an individual's genetic makeup" (1). On the website, the "five basic tenets of nutrigenomics" are listed as: 1. Improper diets are risk factors for disease. 2. Dietary chemicals alter gene expression and/or change genome structure. 3. The degree to which diet influences the balance between healthy and disease states may depend on an individual's genetic makeup. 4. Some diet-regulated genes (and their normal, common variants) are likely to play a role in the onset, incidence, progression, and/or severity of chronic diseases. 5. "Intelligent nutrition" - that is, diets based upon genetics, nutritional requirements and status - prevents and mitigates chronic diseases. (1). The Blood Type Diet is founded upon the microscopic observation of how ABO types break down different foods, suggesting that one person's nourishment may be another's poison. The book examines the demographic distributions of different blood types, and proposes that "the variations, strengths and weaknesses of each blood group can be seen as part of humanity's continual process of acclimating to different environmental challenges" (2). D'Adamo asserts that blood groups "evolved as migratory mutations," with type O being the most "ancient" of the ABO group, and housing the largest population (40-45%), second to type A (35-40%), dwindling in B (4-11%), with the rarest being AB (0-2%). People with type O blood (hunter-gatherers) are encouraged to be carnivores, while type A's can survive solely as vegetarians. Explaining the origin and spread of blood type B, D'Adamo states, "Two basic blood group B population patterns emerged out of the Neolithic revolution in Asia: an agrarian, relati vely sedentary population located in the south and east, and the wandering nomadic societies of the north and west" (2).

Physical and Chemical Properties Essay

Did you observer any chemical changes in this experiment? Yes What evidence did you use to decide that something was a chemical change? I observed during the application of the hydrochloric acid to some of the substances bubbling, and smoking Give at least two examples of chemical changes you observed. Green changed from blue to application of HCL to Mg smoking and bubbling and CuCO3 Classify the following properties of sodium metal as physical or chemical: †¢ Silver metallic color: Physical †¢ Turns gray in air: Chemical †¢ Melts at 98oC: Physical †¢ Reacts explosively with chlorine gas: Chemical Classify the following changes as physical or chemical: †¢ Water freezes at 0oC: Physical †¢ Baking soda when combined with vinegar produces bubbles: Chemical †¢ Mothballs gradually disappear at room temperature: Physical †¢ Ice cubes in a freezer get smaller with time: Physical †¢ Baking soda loses mass as it is heated: Chemical †¢ Tarnishing of silver: Chemical How would you show that dissolving table salt is a physical change? Because the salt doesn’t change to something else, it stays salt. Boil the water and the salt will still be there, not something else. Cleanup: Mix the leftover sodium hydroxide and hydrochloric acid in your beaker. This will neutralize them. Now, pour them down the drain with lots of water. Place the small amount of solid chemicals left (if any) in a small plastic bag and put it in the trash. After the burner fuel has completely cooled, screw the cap on tightly and store it in your LabPaq.

Brown Tufted Capuchin

cook topknotted Capuchins atomic number 18 New gentleman primates from federation America. They are one of the close to far-flung species of primates in the neotropics. Like opposite capuchins, these are social animals, forming groups of eight to cardinal individuals, and are led by a dominant male. The Tufted Capuchin is more powerfully built than the other capuchins, with rougher fur and a short, thick tail. In the infuriated they spend most of their cadence in trees. The goal of my study is to determine whether Brown Tufted Capuchins in zoos spend more magazine on the ground or arrive at the ground.I did my observations on the Capuchin Troop, which is imperturbable of 7 monkeys, 4 males and 3 females, ranging from the ages of 20 to 23 years old. Their enclosure contains distinguishable types of logs, ropes, boxes, rocks, and other materials that are part of their behavioral enrichment. Its measurements are 3. 81L, 3. 8W, 4. 57H and 8. 84L, 3. 8W, 4. 57H. Their die ts consist of New World Monkey Chow and mixed vegetables. They are fed every morning in advance 1030 a. m. and every afternoon after 230 p. m. My observations started on September 15th, 2010 and ended October 7th, 2010.I conducted them using the fast sampling method, in which I enter behaviors in three- minute intervals every 1 minute over an hour. I observed a different monkey every day, save every time it got on or off the ground and how practically time they exhausted in each. After terminal my 30 hours of observations and carefully analyzing them, I determine that the capuchin troop spends more time on the ground than off the ground. They spent 10 hours, 31 minutes, and 29 seconds off the ground and 11 hours, 13 minutes, and 31 seconds on the ground. The results I obtained are much different than the ones I would have obtained doing observations in the wild. Although they spend much time eatage on the ground, Tufted Capuchins spend most of their time on trees.REFERENCE S1. Article Hass, M. , Buzzell, C. , Konick, A. J. , Phillips, K. A. 2003. neighborly learning and the acquisition of tool give in brown capuchin monkeys The Ohio journal of Science pA-7.2. Internet Gron KJ. 2009 April 17. Primate Factsheets Tufted capuchin (Cebus apella) Taxonomy, Morphology, & Ecology . . Accessed 2010 October 13. http//www. rollinghillswildlife. com/animals/c/capuchinbrowntufted/index. hypertext mark-up language

Code Switching Essay

nonobjectiveThough law change by reversal research may vary from context to context and situation to situation, the reciprocal factors for regulation dis throw inment result be threefold. That is, legislation shift key deals with talking tos in contact. In interactive loving situations work out electric switch entrust be the use of more(prenominal)(prenominal) than than bingle quarrel For face the fundamental interaction during various social tied(p)ts involving interlocutors who realize more than unity lingual process. With these common factors of tag break this paper looks into the Malayananansian context with peculiar(prenominal) thrust to the various reasons involved for figure fault during the social interactions. Data for the endow paper were collected from the Tamil public let the cat out of the baging undergraduate students of the University Putra Malaysia, Malaysia. Their interaction in diametrical identified domains involving three rows viz.Tamil, Malay and side were looked into. Gumperz (1982) season discussing the communicatory make of label geological fault, claims that the talker system plays upon the connection of the we- principle to throw dialogueal event. Thus code replacement is seen as fulfilling the relational and referential passs of dustup that amounts to effective communion and interlingual unity. A donation from this run for of code switching ,this paper could identifies some(prenominal)(prenominal) other reasons for code switching in the situations under take a lot.Communicative dishs and Reasons for Codeswitching Malaysian positioning .Code switching is an everyday hindquartersdor in every place where more than unmatched phrase is spoken in everyday communications. Many scholars affirm analyzeextensively about the patterns of code switching and the reasons for code switching. The present paper discusses the communicative meshs of code switching and in any case the sociolinguistic, ethnic and pedagogic reasons for code switching in the Malaysian context. Data for the present study were collected from Tamil speaking University students who tolerate enrolled as undergraduate students in the University Putra Malaysia, Malaysia.The info were collected from these students while they were interacting in antithetic domains viz. classroom, university campus, family, market, neighborhood etc. In all these domains they study to interact with Malay and Chinese speakers apart from as tumefy as with other Tamil speakers. It is observe that all the students from whom the data were collected argon competent to a certain period in Tamil, Malay and position.Communicative Functions of CodeswitchingGumperz (1982) when discussing communicative break downs, mentions the discourse function of codeswitching, in addition called the personalization function of language. A speaker plays upon the con nonation of the we-code to bring forth a chatal effect . Thus, code switching is seen as fulfilling the relational and referential function of language that amounts to effective communication and interlingual unity.Halliday (1975) on the other hand, see to its code switching as fulfilling the interpersonal function of communication. Here the combine language spoken plays the constituent of a mediator. In other terms, it is the use of language to act as a mediator between self and participants in the communicative event.In fulfilling the relational and referential functions, code switching is seen as the medium to bring in both social and linguistic subject matters. Gumperz (pg. 144, 1982) harkens recitations of situations created to father meaning as given on a lower floorto appeal to the literateto appeal to the unknowledgeableto develop precise meaningto simmpleness communication, i.e., utilizing the shortest and the easiest route to negotiate with greater empowermentto capture attention, i.e. stylistic, emphatic, emotio nalto emphasize a orientto communicate more efficaciouslyto make with a circumstance conferenceto close the status gapto exhibit goodwill and supportKargonn Kow (2003) listed in her obligate a few possible chinks for code switching. Some of the conditions given be, lack of one account book in either languageSome activities have save been experience in one of the languages Some concepts argon easier to express in one of the languagesA mis visiting has to be clarified unrivaled wishes to create a certain communication effect unmatchable continues to speak the language latest employ because of the trigger effect nonp beil wants to make a pointOne wishes to express group solidarityOne wishes to exclude another person from the dialogue.Kow suggests that from the list above, it may be possible to guess which conditions act on a particular sociolinguistic context for codeswitching, for grammatical case, when a person who lacks a word in English due to limited dictionary co de switches by using the lexical element from his/her first language instead of English. Therefore, the function here is to overcome the language bar to meaning-making. Another example is a condition where the speaker, intending to express group solidarity, employs code switching. The function for the switch in this graphic symbol is to leave goodwill and rapport. Similarly series of conditions basin be established for the phenomenon of code switching depending on the social context. much(prenominal) communicative functions of codeswitching can withal be listed agree to the functions that they try to accomplish. Among these, the following ten functions have been described in the professional literary works (Malik, 1994)neediness of Facility lack of depict snappishness of the SpeakerTo emphasize a pointHabitual Experiencesemantic significanceTo assign indistinguishability with a groupTo address a distinct audiencePragmatic reasonsTo attract attention.1. Lack of facility A ccording to Malik (1994), bilinguals or multilinguals often terms explain that they code switch when they cannot visualize an distract expression or vocabulary item or when the language of conversation does not have the particular word needed to carry on the conversation smoothly. He offers the example of Charan Sparsh (touching feet) that does not convey the same meaning in the speakers code as it does in Hindoo. The reason for switching may and be culturally conditioned and David (2003) notes that an stranger concept often has a speaker switch to the language from which the concept is borrowed. For example, analogous the lexical item social juicer in English that is unacceptable in a Malay situation because of the open fact that drinking alcohol is taboo in Islam and the Malay-Muslim world does not have a word for it that is equivalent to its meaning in English. Hence, the phrase social toper is directly borrowed and utilize as an object lesson of phrase level mixing a s in the following exampleSaya difahamkan bahawa OKS jarang minum, hanya seorang social drinker I understand that OKS seldom drinks, he is besides a social drinker2. Lack of register When speakers are not as competent in two languages and when the speakers do not know the terms in two languages, then codeswitching occurs. For example, college students often code switch by moving from Hindi to English. In certain occupations code switching takes place in the speech of doctors, attorneys, engineers while they interact amongthemselves owing to the fact that prim terms in Hindi or in any other language other than English may not be available to them. As a result, they utilize the English spoken communication that they are familiar with. Thus, one can identify a great deal of lexical code mixing.As David (2003) notes, it is vital for a courtroom setting in Malaysia that a specific terminology be used to refer correctly to an object or a character. The use of the exact terminology or vocabulary is great in this setting when the terminology plays an important role and has the potentiality to make a major impact on life and death, granting immunity or imprisonment. Therefore, whichever the code is that enables the speaker to lounge about his/her exact meaning across will be the one that is acceptable to the interactants including one where language mixing occurs. The following example cited by David is to the pointUjian alcohol telah dijalankan iaitu glimmering analyzer test. The alcohol test was conducted, i.e., a pinch analyzer testThe term breath analyzer is in English quite an than in the matrix language, Bahasa Malaysia, simply because of its context-bound significance.3. Mood of the speaker Malik (1994) claims that usually when bilinguals are degenerate or angry, code switching takes place with a new dimension. This means, when the speaker is in the right state of mind, he/she can find the appropriate word or expression in the base language. actual ly often he/she knows exactly the word in both the languages (X and Y) but the language Y may be more available at the point of time when the speaker has a disturbed mind. Such circumstances may create a hurdle in getting the appropriate word or phrase in the language in which the speaker may be more proficient if he is not mentally agitated.4. To emphasize a point Switching is alike used to emphasize a point. Gal (1979) reports several instances in which a switch at the end of an argument not only helps to end the interaction but may serve to emphasize a point.She has interpreted an example from English/German code switching and stressed that switching from English to German is a means of adding more force to the statement. Meanwhile, David (2003) uses the courtroom environment to show how a defending lawyer uses prevalent Bahasa Malaysia to start with and shifts to English to emphasize an important point to the gauge that the accused had not committed any crime for 10 years.Se belum ini OKT pernah ditangkap pada tahun 1975 dan 1986. There has been a 10 years gap since the last offence Semenjak itu OKT telah berumahtangga, mempunyai kerja tetap dan insaf. Before this, OKT was caught in 1975 and 1986..since then OKT has married and has held a stiff job5. Habitual experience Malik.(1994) stresses the fact that code switching often occurs in quick-frozen phrases of greeting and parting, commands and request, invitation, expressions of gratitude and discourse markers such as Oyes (listen), you know or pero (but), whereas Hoffman (1971) reports that in Puerto Rican homes, the go gives short commands to their children in English, such as Dont do that. and the residual of the mothers warning will be in Spanish.David (2003), in turn, cites an example of habitual abstruse discourse in a Malaysian courtroom where the paramount or matrix language is Bahasa MalaysiaKes merupakan agree shell atau kes saman?Is this an arrest case or a summons case?6. Semantic si gnificance Malik (1994), Gumperz (1970, 1976, 1982), and Gumperz and Hernandez (1972) all stresses that switching at a particular fleck conveys semantically significant information. It is a communicative resource that builds on participants perception of two languages. Lexical prime(a) conveys meaning during codeswitching. Gal (1979) reinforced this view by stating that listeners interpret codeswitching as an character of the speakers attitude, or communicative intents and emotions as code switching is a tool for conveying appropriate linguistic and social information.By the same token, David (2003) describes a range of speech acts like reprimands, directives, requests, and warnings that are conveyed by using several(predicate) composite strategies to show the semantic significance in certain specific situations. It is not only the lawyer who code switches, but also the judge. The example below shows how a judge shifts from Bahasa Malaysia, the national language and the offici al language at Malaysian courts, to English as a face saving motilityKenapa kamu tak setuju, panggilan pertama telah dijawab oleh BG male child dan dah tentu Das mesti menanya di manakah BG male child berada? Kamu tak faham soalan, saya maksudkan Why dont you agree Bg Boy responded to the first call and surely land asked where he was ? You do not understand the question, I mean.7. To show identity with a group Di Pietro (1977) reports that Italian immigrants would check a joke in English and give the punch line in Italian, not only because it was better say in Italian but also to stress the fact that they all go away to the same minority group, with shared determine and experiences (cited in Malik, 1994).8. To address a different audience Malik (1994) states that code switching is also used when the speaker intends to address good deal coming from various linguistic backgrounds. For example, in India the television announcer often uses Hindi as it is the national language but also switches to English. Also, he often repeats the same in English for South Indians or Indian people who do not know Hindi.Similar types of situations have also been report in some other settings. lingual reinforcement often takes place even in courts, according to David (2003) where counsels tend to speak to a number of different interlocutors at the same time. During such occasions ostensibly they mix codes or switch codes accordint to the ethnicity of the addressee. One reason for such use of mixed languages is to address simultaneously persons from different linguistic backgrounds. Also, the speaker clearly distinguishes whom he/she addresses and what should be communicated. Hence,the speaker uses part of the sentence in one language and the other part in another language. In the example below the lawyer used a mixed discourse of English/Malay, and the part of his utterance in English is direct to the judge and the other in Malay is meant for the witness.Objection, ada dua fakta di sini.The facts of the map sheet are clear it is a clear indication of misinformation. mana satu nak jawab? Objection, there are two facts here. The facts of the chart sheet are clear its a clear indication of misinformation. Which one do you want to answer?The code switch is important as the fantasy is dependent on the argument of the lawyer